Correlates Of Recidivism Among Released Prisoners: A Study of Kakamega County, Kenya

Released prisoners in Kenya have a 75% likelihood of committing another crime and a 50% probability of going to jail two years after their discharge from prison custody. From the trend of recidivism in Kenya, there are a staggeringly high number of offenders being incarcerated and eventually released back to the community, and the high risk of re-arrest and re-incarceration is a concern for policymakers, criminologists and correctional managers. This study examined the influence of offender characteristics, offender reintegration and community perception and attitude regarding recidivism in Kakamega County, Kenya. The study adopted a survey research design. Findings reveal a statistically significant relationship between offender characteristics and recidivism. In addition, offender reintegration and community perception and attitude towards offenders greatly influence recidivism. From the study, it is recommended that the government provide correctional officers with the required resources to use the actuarial risk assessment model. The model is applied to the released offenders to predict the future probability of recidivism. In addition, it is recommended that the government and the various correctional stakeholders come up with an integrated approach that specifically targets successful re-entry of offenders upon release from prison. Finally, it is recommended that the government develop programmes targeting awareness of the community members to desist from stigmatising ex-offenders. Key terms: Correlates, Recidivism, Prisoners, Kenya DOI: 10.7176/JLPG/109-07 Publication date:May 31st 202

Impediments to the Actualization of Legislation on Local Brew in Kenya: a Study within the Kenya-Uganda Border Community, Busia County

Despite the aggressive efforts by the legislators and the moralists to demonize local brew in Kenya, Chang’aa and busaa have withstood all the suppression and they remain the most preferred alcoholic drinks for rural and lower class citizens. This study made an inquiry into the challenges facing the implementation of local brew policies, with specific focus on the Alcoholic Drinks Control Act, 2010 and the County Alcoholic Drinks Control Act which is currently being adopted by the counties across Kenya. The study area was unique in the sense that it strategically links Kenya and Uganda and there are deep intricacies in relation to cross border relations. No such study has been conducted in a local community along the Kenya-Uganda border with a long history of local brewing in the western parts of Kenya. The study data was collected from 60 local brewers using questionnaires. Personal interviews were used in gathering data from key informants that included 10 police officers and 10 national administrators. The study found major pitfalls both in the design and implementation of the policies on local brew. The study revealed that the major policy implementation challenges are related to influence from traditions, skewed implementation and coordination measures, inadequate implementation resources, poor conduct of the implementing officers, poor court practices and increased smuggling of sub-standard brew from Uganda. The police are some of the beneficiaries of local brew illegalization efforts since they fleece money from the gullible local brewers. The study recommended that local brew should be legalized and standardized because the current prohibition efforts only benefit Ugandan economy and promote the growth of the black market at the Kenya-Uganda border. There is a need for more investment on the socioeconomic aspects of life that more often lure people to local brewing. The study findings challenge the government to consider meditating upon the realities on the ground before prohibiting local brew. Keywords: Actualization,  Legislation, Policy, Public Participation DOI: 10.7176/JLPG/109-08 Publication date:May 31st 202

Influence of Training Levels of Private Security Service Providers in Crime Prevention in Lurambi Sub-County, Kenya

This study aimed to examine the role of private security providers in crime prevention in Lurambi Sub-County, Kenya. The study was necessitated by private security providers' presence and use to protect life, property, and maintenance of law and order in Lurambi Sub-County, Kakamega County, Kenya. The Routine Activity and Situational Crime Prevention Theories of criminology informed the study. Specifically, this study intended to establish resource availability for private security service providers in crime prevention in Lurambi Sub-county, Kenya. The study adopted descriptive and correlational research designs. The primary target population constituted 358 respondents, both male and female, drawn from six registered and regulated private security service providers in Lurambi Sub-County, 5 senior police officers in charge of security, police administration, and 4 police stations across Lurambi Sub-County, and 133 clients of private security services. Purposive sampling was used to identify the 6 registered and licensed private security firms which provided the study population. Proportionate sampling with a statistical framework of 30% was used to identify 108 private security service providers who formed the sample size to ensure that the private security officers from the 6 firms were represented in the same proportion that they existed within the population. Questionnaires were used to collect data from three groups of respondents, including 108 private security officers, 6 managers each in charge of each private security firm that participated in the study, and 40 clients sampled from the 6 private security firms that participated in the study. Interview guides were used to collect data from 5 senior police officers in charge of security, police administration, and 4 police stations spread across Lurambi Sub-County. The study findings revealed that private security service providers were not adequately trained, hence impacting crime prevention negatively in Lurambi Sub-County. The study recommended that private security service providers consider providing relevant and timely training programs to strengthen crime prevention efforts. Key Terms: Training Levels, Private Security, Crime Prevention DOI: 10.7176/PPAR/11-6-04 Publication date:July 31st 202

The Role of Prison Experience on Recidivism in Kakamega County, Kenya

Recidivism is the relapse into criminal activity and is generally measured by a former prisoner’s return to prison for a new offence. The rate of recidivism in Kenya is estimated to be about two‐thirds, which means that two‐thirds of released inmates will be re‐incarcerated after their release from prisons. As a result of this, crime by former inmates alone account for a substantial share of the current and future crimes. From the trend in the high prevalence of recidivism in Kenya, there are a staggering high number of people being incarcerated and eventually released back to the community and the high risk of re-arrest and re-incarceration is a concern for policymakers, criminologists, and those involved in corrections. High rates of recidivism result in tremendous costs both in terms of public safety and in monies spent to arrest, prosecute, and incarcerate re‐offenders. High rates of recidivism also lead to devastating social costs to the communities and families of offenders, as well as the personal costs to the offenders themselves. This made the researcher to be interested in recidivism by looking at the role of prison experience on recidivism. The study adopted survey research design. This is a type of descriptive research that adopts descriptive and fact finding enquiries of different kinds of information that describes existing phenomenon by asking individuals about their perception, attitudes, behavior or values. The study was carried out in Kakamega County, covering the three penal institutions, that is, Kakamega Male, Kakamega Female and Shikutse G.K prisons. The study population was repeat offenders found in all the three penal institutions in Kakamega County. Purposive sampling was used to identify recidivists from the general prison offender population based on the existing official prison records. a total of one hundred and forty six respondents were sampled for this study. Random sampling was used to achieve the desired representation from the study population. Questionnaires were used as data collection tools and interviews method was also utilized to collect data. Findings revealed that the longer the duration spent in prison, the worse the reentry experience since those inmates who had served longer sentences suffered the greatest reentry experiences occasioned by disintegrated families, inability to easily secure employment after release, and high chances of reoffending. Therefore the need to come up with working pre-release programs meant to enable inmates to have smooth transitions from correctional institutions to their communities by working with the offenders to develop plans, including housing, employment and participation in post-release programs. Keywords: recidivism, prisoner, re-incarceration

The Role of Private Security Service Providers in Crime Prevention; A Study of Lurambi Sub-County, Kenya

This study aimed to examine the role of private security providers in crime prevention in Lurambi Sub-County, Kenya. The study was necessitated by private security providers' presence and use to protect life, property, and maintenance of law and order in Lurambi Sub-County, Kakamega County, Kenya. The Routine Activity and Situational Crime Prevention Theories of criminology informed the study. Specifically, this study intended to establish resource availability for private security service providers in crime prevention in Lurambi Sub-county, Kenya. The study adopted descriptive and correlational research designs. The primary target population constituted 358 respondents, both male and female, drawn from six registered and regulated private security service providers in Lurambi Sub-County, 5 senior police officers in charge of security, police administration, and 4 police stations across Lurambi Sub-County, and 133 clients of private security services. Purposive sampling was used to identify the 6 registered and licensed private security firms which provided the study population. Proportionate sampling with a statistical framework of 30% was used to identify 108 private security service providers who formed the sample size to ensure that the private security officers from the 6 firms were represented in the same proportion that they existed within the population. Questionnaires were used to collect data from three groups of respondents, including 108 private security officers, 6 managers each in charge of each private security firm that participated in the study, and 40 clients sampled from the 6 private security firms that participated in the study. Interview guides were used to collect data from 5 senior police officers in charge of security, police administration, and 4 police stations spread across Lurambi Sub-County. Study findings revealed that private security service providers in Lurambi Sub-County did not possess adequate resources needed to prevent crime. The study recommended that private security service providers should consider deploying adequate resources to strengthen crime prevention efforts. Key Terms: Private Security, Resources Availability, Crime Prevention DOI: 10.7176/PPAR/11-6-05 Publication date:July 31st 202

Social Determinants of Community Policing in Lurambi Sub-County, Kakamega County, Kenya

Community policing brings together the police and the community members through a partnership to prevent crime, control the crime, and solve social problems. There’s a deterioration in the level of trust, coordination and the level of crime is still high in Lurambi Sub-County. This study sought to investigate Social determinants of community policing in Lurambi Sub-County. The specific research objective was to analyze the effect of community characteristics on community policing in Lurambi Sub-County, Kenya.  The study was underpinned by the social capital theory, cognitive dissonance theory, and routine activity theory. Descriptive research design was adopted. The target population was community members in Lurambi Sub-County. The study targeted a sample of 384 community members as primary respondents. Besides, Police Officers and County law enforcement officers involved in community policing participated in the study as key informants. Stratified random sampling was used to select community members, while purposive sampling was used to select informants for the study. Primary data from community members was collected using questionnaires, while interviews and focus group discussions were used to collect secondary data. The study adopted a mixed-methods approach where quantitative and qualitative data were collected and analyzed. Study data were analyzed using the statistical package for the Social Sciences version 27 for windows. Descriptive and inferential statistics were calculated for the quantitative data, while thematic analysis was used to analyze qualitative data. Results of the study revealed a statistically significant relationship between community characteristics and community policing Lurambi Sub-County (r= 0.519; P<0.05) with a regression coefficient of determination (R2) at 0.233, implying that community characteristics accounted for 23.3% of the variance on community policing. The study findings concluded that community characteristics significantly influenced community policing. The study recommended that community policing actors and stakeholders develop policies that promote trust between the police and community members by cultivating teamwork and shared crime prevention goals since establishing and maintaining mutual trust is the central goal of community policing. Keywords: Social, Determinants, Community Policing DOI: 10.7176/PPAR/12-5-05 Publication date:July 31st 202

The Role of Offender Reintegration on Recidivism in Kakamega County, Kenya

The International Centre for Prison Studies estimates that as of August 2016, over 11 million people were held in prison custody throughout the world. In spite of interventions by corrections to enable offenders to live crime-free lives after a period of incarceration, ex-convicts been exposed to the criminal justice system through either being re-arrested, re-convicted or re-incarcerated again and again, suggesting that the treatments and support systems they receive in and out of prison are either ineffective or non-existent. Since the founding of jails, people have faced challenges in transitioning from incarceration in penal facilities to liberty in the streets. The act of offenders encountering the criminal justice system after their release, whether through technical violations or new offences finds expression in the concept of recidivism. This study sought to investigate the role of offender reintegration on recidivism in Kakamega County, Kenya. The study adopted a survey research design in which 384 recidivists were sampled to take part in the study as respondents. Besides the recidivist, 25 Prison Officers,13 Probation Officers, 27 family members of recidivists, and 18 community members from the neighbourhoods of recidivists bringing the target sample to 467 respondents. Out of the 467 targeted respondents, 412 participate in the study by way of adequately responding to items in the data collection instruments. This gives the study a response rate of 88.22 percent. Both probabilistic and non-probabilistic sampling techniques were used in sample selection. Data from respondents was collected using a questionnaire that was tested for validity and reliability prior to the actual data collection. Factor analysis was used to ascertain validity while Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient of reliability was used to ascertain reliability of the questionnaire. Findings revealed a significant relationship between offender reintegration and recidivism among released prisoners in Kakamega County, Kenya (r=0.541; P< 0.01). The coefficient of determination (R2) was 0.682 meaning that post-release treatment, ability to secure a job after release, access and use of certificate of good conduct, residence after release, vocational training while in prison and interaction with hard-core criminals while in prison account for 68.2% of variation in recidivism among released prisoners in Kakamega County, Kenya. In light of the study findings, it is recommended that the government and the various correctional stakeholders should come up with an integrated approach that specifically targets successful reentry of offenders upon release from prison. Keywords: Offender Reintegration, Recidivism DOI: 10.7176/DCS/12-2-04 Publication date: February 28th 2022

Factors of Recidivism among Reintegrated Inmates in Kenya

Statistics throughout the globe suggest that most prisoners coming out of prison are likely to be re-sentenced within three years of their release. Research continue to find that almost 80 percent of prisoners are likely to be rearrested within a decade of being free. Rearrests around the world may occur within the first year of release if no support is given to the offender. High recurrence rates mean more violence, more victims, and more criminal justice system stress. Recidivism is a technical term which, when loosely understood, bypasses the major problem it faces, the problem of continuity of criminal behaviour. Recidivism remains a concern for Kenyan authorities. In this article we examine the influence of offender characteristics, offender reintegration, and community perceptions and attitudes regarding recidivism in Kakamega County, Kenya. The study applied a survey research design. The study adopted a survey research design in which 384 recidivists were sampled to take part in the study as respondents. Besides the recidivist, 25 Prison Officers,13 Probation Officers, 27 family members of recidivists, and 18 community members from the neighbourhoods of recidivists bringing the target sample to 467 respondents. Both probabilistic and non-probabilistic sampling techniques were used in sample selection. Data from respondents was collected using a questionnaire that was tested for validity and reliability prior to the actual data collection. Factor analysis was used to ascertain validity while Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient of reliability was used to ascertain reliability of the questionnaireFindings reveal a statistically significant relationship between offender characteristics and recidivism, while offender reintegration and community perceptions and attitudes towards offenders are found to greatly influence recidivism. From the study, it is recommended that correctional officers use the actuarial risk assessment model to predict the future probability of recidivism. It is recommended that the various correctional stakeholders develop an integrated approach that specifically targets successful re-entry of offenders upon release, while programmes must be developed to target community awareness to desist from stigmatising ex-offenders. Keywords: Recidivism; Kenya prisons; reintegrated inmates; Kakamega County; offender characteristics; community awareness; actuarial risk assessment model DOI: 10.7176/JLPG/118-14 Publication date: February 28th 202

Relationship between Offender Characteristics and Recidivism in Kakamega County, Kenya

According to (Walmsley, 2016: 2), Kenya is ranking high in the rates of prison overcrowding owing to continued relapse into crime by the ex-offenders. The total prison population in Kenya, comprising pre-trial inmates and remand prisoners, was 57 000 as of August 2016 (Walmsley, 2016: 2).  Kenya has one hundred and eight prison institutions with a design capacity of 26 757 prisoners. This translates to an occupancy level of 213 percent, which is one of the highest in the world and confirms the fact that there is overcrowding in Kenyan prisons. According to the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics Report (Republic of Kenya, 2017: 272), repeat offenders accounted for 25,8 percent of the Kenyan prison population. In direct correlation with this high level of confinement, the country annually also discharges some 255 000 convicted and non-convicted inmates back into various communities across the country. This pattern indicates that offenders do not leave criminality and yet government resources are continuously being spent in trying to reform convicted offenders. This study sought to investigate the relationship between offender characteristics and recidivism in Kakamega County, Kenya. Specifically, the influence of gender, age at the time of imprisonment, educational level, employment status, accommodation, romantic relationships, children, peer relationships, prior criminal records, criminal record and alcohol consumption on recidivism were interrogated. The study adopted a survey research design in which 384 recidivists were sampled to take part in the study as respondents. Besides the recidivist, 25 Prison Officers,13 Probation Officers, 27 family members of recidivists, and 18 community members from the neighbourhoods of recidivists bringing the target sample to 467 respondents. Both probabilistic and non-probabilistic sampling techniques were used in sample selection. Data from respondents was collected using a questionnaire that was tested for validity and reliability prior to the actual data collection. Factor analysis was used to ascertain validity while Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient of reliability was used to ascertain reliability of the questionnaire. Findings revealed a significant relationship between individual characteristics and recidivism among released prisoners in Kakamega County (r=0.669; P< 0.01). Regression analysis revealed that offender characteristics were significant predictors of recidivism with an R squared value of 0.237 implying that offender characteristics account for 23.7% of the variance in recidivism among sampled offenders.  From the study, it is recommended that treatment plans drawn by correctional officers should take into account the individual characteristics of released offenders since there is a strong association between individual characteristics of offenders and recidivism. Key Words: Offender Characteristics, Recidivism DOI: 10.7176/PPAR/12-1-06 Publication date: February 28th 202

FACTORS INFLUENCING RECIDIVISM AMONG PRISONERS IN KAKAMEGA COUNTY

ecidivism is the reversion of an individual to criminal behavior after he or she has been\ud convicted of a prior offence, sentenced and presumably corrected. From the trend in the\ud high prevalence of recidivism in many countries globally, there is a staggering high\ud number of people being incarcerated and eventually released back to the community and\ud the high risk of re-arrest and re-incarceration is a concern for policymakers,\ud criminologists, and those involved in corrections. As a result of this, crime by former\ud inmates alone account for a substantial share of current and future crimes. Thus, it\ud becomes imperative to examine recidivism by looking at the socio-economic and\ud demographic factors that influence recidivism among inmates in Kenyan prisons and the\ud accompanying challenges ex-offenders face once released from prisons and also the role\ud of prison experience on recidivism. This will be achieved though the review of relevant\ud literature in reference to the. Qualitative and quantitative research designs will be applied\ud in this study. Questionnaires, interview schedules and focused group discussions are the\ud instruments that will be used in data collection. Both probabilistic and non-probabilistic\ud sampling techniques will be applied. Purposive sampling will be used to identify\ud recidivists from the general prison offender population based on the existing official\ud prison records. Stratified random sampling will be used to achieve the desired\ud representation from various sub-groups in the population. The researcher will carry out a\ud pilot study at the Kakamega G.K Prisons to test the instruments of data collection